Machiavelli

In 1498, Niccol� Machiavelli began his career as an active politician in the independent city-state of Florence, engaging in diplomatic missions through France and Germany as well as Italy. After more than a decade of public service, he was driven from his post when the republic collapsed. Repeated efforts to win the confidence and approval of the new regime were unsuccessful, and Machiavelli was forced into retirement and a life of detached scholarship about the political process instead of direct participation in it. The books for which he is remembered were published only after his death.

Machiavelli's book of advice to all would-be leaders, The Prince, is published five years after its author's death; it became the progenitor of all "how to succeed" books that advocate practical rather than moral actions.

Machiavelli originally wrote Principe Statue of Machiavelli (The Prince) (1513) in hopes of securing the favor of the ruling Medici family, and he deliberately made its claims provocative. The Prince is an intensely practical guide to the exercise of raw political power over a Renaissance principality. Allowing for the unpredictable influence of fortune, Machiavelli argued that it is primarily the character or vitality or skill of the individual leader that determines the success of any state. The book surveys various bold means of acquiring and maintaining the principality and evaluates each of them solely by reference to its likelihood of augmenting the glory of the prince while serving the public interest. It is this focus on practical success by any means, even at the expense of traditional moral values, that earned Machiavelli's scheme a reputation for ruthlessness, deception, and cruelty.

His Dell'arte della guerra (The Art of War) (1520) Machiavelli explains in detail effective procedures for the acquisition, maintenance, and use of a military force. Even in his more leisurely reflections on the political process, Machiavelli often wrote in a similar vein. The Discorsi sopra la prima Deca di Tito Livio (Discourses on Livy) (1531) review the history of the Roman republic, with greater emphasis on the role of fortune and a clear admiration for republican government. Here, too, however, Machiavelli's conception of the proper application of morality to practical political life is one that judges the skill of all participants in terms of the efficacy with which they achieve noble ends. Whatever the form of government, Machiavelli held, only success and glory really matter.

Niccolo Machiavelli

Niccolo Machiavelli was born on May 3, 1469, in Florence, Italy. He eventually became a man who lived his life for politics and patriotism. Right now, however, he is associated with corrupt, totalitarian government. The reason for this is a small pamphlet he wrote called The Prince to gain influence with the ruling Medici family in Florence. The political genius of Niccolo Machiavelli was overshadowed by the reputation that was unfairly given to him because of a misunderstanding of his views on politics.

Machiavelli's life was very interesting. He lived a nondescript childhood in Florence, and his main political experience in his youth was watching Savanarola from afar. Soon after Savanarola was executed, Machiavelli entered the Florentine government as a secretary. His position quickly rose, however, and was soon engaging in diplomatic missions. He met many of the important politicians of the day, such as the Pope and the King of France, but none had more impact on him than a prince of the Papal States, Cesare Borgia. Borgia was a cunning, cruel man, very much like the one portrayed in The Prince. Machiavelli did not truly like Borgia's policies, but he thought that with a ruler like Borgia the Florentines could unite Italy, which was Machiavelli's goal throughout his life. Unfortunately for Machiavelli, he was dismissed from office when the Medici came to rule Florence and the Republic was overthrown. The lack of a job forced him to switch to writing about politics instead of being active. His diplomatic missions were his last official government positions.

When Machiavelli lost his office, he desperately wanted to return to politics. He tried to gain the favor of the Medici by writing a book of what he thought were the Medici's goals and dedicating it to them. And so The Prince was written for that purpose. Unfortunately, the Medici didn't agree with what the book said, so he was out of a job. But when the public saw the book, they were outraged. The people wondered how cruel a man could be to think evil thoughts like the ones in The Prince, and this would come back to haunt him when he was alive and dead. However, if the people wanted to know what Machiavelli really stood for, they should have read his "Discourses on Livy", which explain his full political philosophy. But not enough people had and have, and so the legacy of The Prince continues to define Machiavelli to the general public.

A few years later the Medici were kicked out of Florence. The republic was re-established, and Machiavelli ran to retake the office he had left so many years ago. But the reputation that The Prince had established made people think his philosophy was like the Medici, so he was not elected. And here the sharp downhill of his life began. His health began to fail him, and he died months later, in 1527.

Machiavelli had been unfairly attacked all of his life because of a bad reputation. But it only got worse after he died. He was continually blasted for his "support" of corrupt ruling. In fact, Machiavellian now means corrupt government. Only recently has his true personality come to light. The world must change it's vision of the cold, uncaring Machiavelli to the correct view of a patriot and a political genius.

Works of Machiavelli

The Prince (Il  Principe)

The Prince's contribution to the history of political thought is the fundamental break between political Realism and political Idealism. Niccol� Machiavelli�s best-known book exposits and describes the arts with which a ruling Prince can maintain control of his realm. It concentrates on the New Prince, under the presumption that an Hereditary Prince has an easier task in ruling, since the people are accustomed to him. To retain power, the Hereditary Prince must carefully maintain the socio-political institutions to which the people are accustomed; whereas the New Prince has the more difficult task in ruling, since he must first stabilize his new-found power in order to build an enduring political structure. That requires the Prince being a public figure above reproach, whilst privately acting immorally to achieve State goals. The examples are those princes who most successfully obtain and maintain power, drawn from his observations as a Florentine diplomat, and his ancient history readings; thus, the Latin phrases and Classic examples.

The Prince does not dismiss morality, instead, it politically defines �Morality� � as in the criteria for acceptable cruel action � it must be decisive: swift, effective, and short-lived. Machiavelli is aware of the irony of good results coming from evil actions; notwithstanding some mitigating themes, the Catholic Church proscribed The Prince, registering it to the Index Librorum Prohibitorum, moreover, the Humanists also viewed the book negatively, among them, Erasmus of Rotterdam. As a treatise, its primary intellectual contribution to the history of political thought is the fundamental break between political Realism and political Idealism � thus, The Prince is a manual to acquiring and keeping political power. In contrast with Plato and Aristotle, a Classical ideal society is not the aim of the Prince�s will to power. As a political scientist, Machiavelli emphasises necessary, methodic exercise of brute force punishment-and-reward (patronage, clientelism, et cetera) to preserve the status quo.

Etymologically, his sixteenth-century contemporaries adopted and used the adjective Machiavellian (elaborately cunning), often in the introductions of political tracts offering more than government by �Reasons of State�, most notably those of Jean Bodin and Giovanni Botero; while contemporary, pejorative usage of Machiavellian (anti-Machiavellism in the 16th C.) is a misnomer describing someone who deceives and manipulates others for gain; (personal or not, the gain is immaterial, only action matters, insofar as it effects results). The Prince hasn�t the moderating themes of his other works; politically, �Machiavelli� denotes someone of politically-extreme perspective; however Machiavellianism remains a popular speech and journalism usage; while in psychology, it denotes a personality type.

Discourses on Livy (Discorsi)

The Discourse on the First Ten Books of Titus Livy comprises the early history of Rome, it is a series of lessons on how a republic should be started and structured, including the concept of checks and balances, the strength of a tri-partite political structure, and the superiority of a republic over a principality.

From The Discourses:

• �In fact, when there is combined under the same constitution a prince, a nobility, and the power of the people, then these three powers will watch and keep each other reciprocally in check�. Book I, Chapter II

• �Doubtless these means [of attaining power] are cruel and destructive of all civilized life, and neither Christian, nor even human, and should be avoided by every one. In fact, the life of a private citizen would be preferable to that of a king at the expense of the ruin of so many human beings�. Book I, Chapter XXVI

• �Now, in a well-ordered republic, it should never be necessary to resort to extra-constitutional measures. . . . � Book I, Chapter XXXIV

• �. . . the governments of the people are better than those of princes�. Book I, Chapter LVIII

• �. . . if we compare the faults of a people with those of princes, as well as their respective good qualities, we shall find the people vastly superior in all that is good and glorious�. Book I, Chapter LVIII

• �For government consists mainly in so keeping your subjects that they shall be neither able, nor disposed to injure you. . . . � Book II, Chapter XXIII

• �. . . no prince is ever benefited by making himself hated�. Book III, Chapter XIX

• �Let not princes complain of the faults committed by the people subjected to their authority, for they result entirely from their own negligence or bad example�. Book III, Chapter XXIX

Other works of Machiavelli

Peter Withorne�s 1573 translation of the Art of War

Besides being a statesman (political scientist), the Renaissance Man Niccol� Machiavelli also translated Classical works, and was a dramaturge (Clizia, Mandragola), a poet (Sonetti, Canzoni, Ottave, Canti carnascialeschi), and a novelist (Belfagor arcidiavolo); following are listed some of his works:

• Discorso sopra le cose di Pisa (1499)

• Del modo di trattare i popoli della Valdichiana ribellati (1502)

• Del modo tenuto dal duca Valentino nell� ammazzare Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, etc. (1502) � A Description of the Methods Adopted by the Duke Valentino when Murdering Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, the Signor Pagolo, and the Duke di Gravina Orsini

• Discorso sopra la provisione del danaro (1502) � A discourse about the provision of money.

• Decennale primo (1506), a poem in terza rima.

• Ritratti delle cose dell� Alemagna (1508�1512)

• Decennale secondo (1509), a poem.

• Ritratti delle cose di Francia (1510) � Portrait of the affairs of France.

• Andria (1517), a Classical comedy, translated from Terence.

• Mandragola (1518) � The Mandrake, a five-act prose comedy, with a verse prologue.

• Della lingua (1514), a dialogue about the language.

• Clizia (1525), a prose comedy.

• Belfagor arcidiavolo (1515), a novel.

• Asino d�oro (1517) � The Golden Ass is a terza rima poem, a new version of the Classic work by Apuleius.

• Dell�arte della guerra (1519�1520) � The Art of War, high military science.

• Discorso sopra il riformare lo stato di Firenze (1520) � A discourse about the reforming of Florence.

• Sommario delle cose della citta di Lucca (1520) � A summary of the affaisr of the city of Lucca.

• Vita di Castruccio Castracani da Lucca (1520) � The Life of Castruccio Castracani of Lucca, a biography.

• Istorie fiorentine (1520�1525) � Florentine Histories, an eight-volume history book of the city-state, Florence, commissioned by Giulio di Giuliano de� Medici, later Pope Clement VII.

• Frammenti storici (1525) � Fragments of stories.
   

References

Classics of Organization Theory, Shafritz, J.M. and Ott J.S.

http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/macv.htm

http://www.ctbw.com/lubman.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli