Geert Hofstede
Geert Hofstede (or Gerard Hendrik
Hofstede - born 2 October 1928, Haarlem) is an influential Dutch writer
on the interactions between national cultures and organizational
cultures, and is an author of several books including Culture's
Consequences (2nd, fully revised edition, 2001) and Cultures and
Organizations, Software of the Mind (2nd, revised edition 2005, with his
son Gert Jan Hofstede).
Hofstede's study demonstrated that
there are national and regional cultural groupings that affect the
behaviour of societies and organizations, and that are very persistent
across time.
Geert Hofstede's Framework for
Assessing Culture
Geert Hofstede has found five
dimensions of culture in his study of national work related values:
- Small vs. Large
Power Distance - the extent to which
the less powerful members of institutions and organizations expect
and accept that power is distributed unequally. Small power distance
(e.g. Austria, Denmark) expect and accept power relations that are
more consultative or democratic. People relate to one another more
as equals regardless of formal positions. Subordinates are more
comfortable with and demand the right to contribute to and critique
the decision making of those in power. In large power distance
countries (e.g. China) less powerful accept power relations that are
more autocratic and paternalistic. Subordinates acknowledge the
power of others simply based on where they are situated in certain
formal, hierarchical positions. As such the Power Distance Index
Hofstede defines does not reflect an objective difference in power
distribution but rather the way people perceive power differences.
In Europe, Power Distance tends to be lower in Northern countries
and higher in Southern and Eastern parts. There seems to be an
admittedly disputable correlation with predominant religions.
- Individualism vs.
collectivism - individualism is
contrasted with collectivism, and refers to the extent to which
people are expected to stand up for themselves and to choose their
own affiliations, or alternatively act predominantly as a member of
a life-long group or organization. Latin American cultures rank
among the most collectivist in this category, while the U.S.A. is
one of the most individualistic cultures.
- Masculinity vs.
femininity - refers to the value
placed on traditionally male or female values (as understood in most
Western cultures). So called 'masculine' cultures value
competitiveness, assertiveness, ambition, and the accumulation of
wealth and material possessions, whereas feminine cultures place
more value on relationships and quality of life. Japan is considered
by Hofstede to be the most "masculine" culture, Sweden the most
"feminine." Anglo cultures are moderately masculine. Because of the
taboo on sexuality in many cultures, particularly masculine ones,
and because of the obvious gender generalizations implied by the
Hofstede's terminology, this dimension is often renamed by users of
Hofstede's work, e.g. to Quantity of Life vs. Quality of Life.
Another reading of the same dimension holds that in 'M' cultures,
the differences between gender roles are more dramatic and less
fluid than in 'F' cultures.
- Uncertainty
avoidance - reflects the extent to
which members of a society attempt to cope with anxiety by
minimizing uncertainty. Cultures that scored high in uncertainty
avoidance prefer rules (e.g. about religion and food) and structured
circumstances, and employees tend to remain longer with their
present employer. Mediterranean cultures and Japan rank the highest
in this category.
- Long vs. short term
orientation - describes a society's
"time horizon," or the importance attached to the future versus the
past and present. In long term oriented societies, values include
persistence (perseverance), ordering relationships by status,
thrift, and having a sense of shame; in short term oriented
societies, values include normative statements, personal steadiness
and stability, protecting ones face, respect for tradition, and
reciprocation of greetings, favors, and gifts. China, Japan and the
Asian countries score especially high (long-term) here, with Western
nations scoring rather low (short-term) and many of the less
developed nations very low; China scored highest and Pakistan
lowest.
These cultural differences describe
averages or tendencies and not characteristics of individuals. A
Japanese person for example can have a very low 'uncertainty avoidance'
compared to a Filipino even though their 'national' cultures point
strongly in a different direction. Consequently, a country's scores
should not be interpreted as deterministic.
Read more about Hofstede's Cultural
Dimensions Theory
References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geert_Hofstede
|
